Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Classroom Management
Beliefs
1.0
Literature Review
School was
established with the authority to
set standards and criteria in the administration of certain
students to achieve success. This makes the roles of teachers more complex and challenging. It
started from school with comfortable
and conducive environment to learn and to educate students becoming successful members of society and as social worker and agent of social change ( Saxena, 1997). The
most important conditions to
ensure a process of effective
teaching and learning
are aspects of classroom
management (Rosas and West, 2008). In order to make classrooms more
conducive, effective and can be
managed efficiently, the teacher must have the qualities of a manager, whether as decisive, democratic, compassionate, and
caring (Laut, 1999). Teachers’ efficacy also has positive impacts on
teachers’ classroom management beliefs and practice (Good,1981 ; Bezzina &
Butcher, 1990; Ross, 1994; Soodak & Podell, 1994). Furthermore, teachers’
efficacy have been associated with significant variables such as students’
motivation and achievement, teachers' adoption of innovations, teachers'
classroom management strategies and time spent in teaching certain subjects
(Berman, 1977; Bandura, 1977; Hoy &
Hoy, 1998; Hoy, 2000; Bıkmaz, 2004).
The
Concept of Teachers’ Efficacy
Bandura's social
learning theory has
introduced the concept of teachers’
efficacy. Bandura (1997) defined perceived self
efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses
of action required to produce given attainments”. Human motivation, well-being
and personal accomplishment are the foundation provided by self-efficacy
beliefs (Bandura, 1997). This is because when people believe that their work
can produce the result they desire, they will put an effort to act in the face
of difficulties (Pajares, 2002). Self efficacy also can be defined as a
conviction that one can successfully execute the behaviour required to produce
the outcomes (Savran & Çakıroğlu, 2003). Teacher’s efficacy measuring was
started in 1966. Rotter (1966) defines two efficacy items in the teachers’
efficacy questionnaire: Rand item 1 and Rand item 2. Rand item 1 on teachers’
beliefs about the power of external factors compared to the influence of
teachers and schools and this item was labelled as general teaching efficacy
(GTE) which corresponded to Bandura’s outcome expectancy. Rand item 2 was more
specific and individual than a belief about what teachers in general could
accomplish and it was labelled as personal teaching efficacy (PTE) which
corresponded to Bandura’s self-efficacy expectation (Tschannen, Hoy & Hoy,
1998). Recently, researchers were
interested in developing more reliable and comprehensive instruments to measure
teachers’ efficacy. These instruments are Teachers Locus of Control (TLC) developed
by Rose and Medway (1981). Following these works, Gibson and Dembo (1984) developed
a broader and more reliable teachers’ efficacy measurement, which is beginning
with the formulation of the Rand studies but bringing to bear the conceptual
underpinnings of Bandura. From the analysis, the finding shows same two
dimensions of teacher efficacy; one of them is personal teaching efficacy
assumed to reflect self-efficacy and the other is general teaching efficacy
assumed to capture outcome expectancy (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Studies
related to measuring teacher efficacy in science teaching and learning has been
conducted by some researchers. Riggs and Enochs (1990) developed a
questionnaire based on Gibson and Dembo’s Teacher Efficacy Scale to measure
efficacy of teaching science, which was called Science Teaching Efficacy Belief
Instrument (STEBI). Gibson and Dembo developed two useful tools for monitoring
teachers’ personal science teaching self-efficacy at various stages of their
career: Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument-A (STEBI-A) and Science
Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument-B (STEBI-B). STEBI-A is aimed to reveal
elementary teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and STEBI-B was designed for
pre-service teachers (Ginns & Watters, 1999).
Teachers’
Classroom Management Beliefs
Classroom management is
the essential factor that deeply affects effective teaching-learning
environments and students’ achievement. By reviewing literature, it was
perceived that some investigators (Smith & Misra, 1992; Colvin, Sugai,
& Patching, 1993; Kohn, 1994; Ellis & Karr-Kidwell, 1995; Tauber, 1995,
Ellis et al. 1996) seem to consider classroom discipline and classroom management
as being synonymous (Youseff, 2003). However, discipline typically refers to
structures and rules for student behaviour and efforts to ensure that students comply
with those rules (Martin & Yin, 1997; Martin, Yin & Baldwin, 1998;
Martin & Shoho, 1999). On the other hand, classroom management can be
described as a broader, umbrella term that indicates all teachers’ efforts to
oversee the activities of the classroom including learning, social interaction,
and student behaviour (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980 ). Brophy (1988) defined
classroom management as “the actions taken to create and maintain a learning environment
conductive to attainment of the goals instruction-arranging the physical
environment of the classroom, establishing rules and procedures, maintaining
attention to lessons and engagement in academic activities”.
In addition, classroom
management includes three extensive dimensions; first one is the person
dimension which is related to teachers’ perceptions of the students as persons
and teachers’ beliefs about what they can do to help students in developing as
individuals (Martin and Baldwin, 1993). Instruction is the second dimension
that includes what teacher can do for enabling students to learn use of time,
physical design of the classroom and maintenance of classroom routines . The
last one, discipline, entails those behaviours that teachers use to set
standards for behaviour and to enforce those standards (Laut, 1999). Glickman & Tamashiro (1980) examined
teachers’ beliefs regarding classroom management and discipline and put forward
three approaches based on child development. These approaches show a continuum
from high teacher control to low teacher control.
Classroom management is
the one of the most important issues in educational settings and it is needed to
investigate the teachers’ classroom management beliefs and practices.
Researchers attempt to capture multi dimensional aspects of classroom
management and for this reason developed some scales. The research efforts to
explore the effects of classroom management are limited by the quality of
instruments presently available to measure teacher perceptions and beliefs (Martin
and Baldwin (1993). Hence, a better
understanding of the teachers’ efficacy and the classroom management beliefs is
important to facilitate the process of teaching and learning (Yilmaz and Cavas,
2006).
References
Bezzina, M., & Butcher, J. (Eds.).
(1990). Teacher efficacy and classroom management beliefs. In The changing
face of professional education. Collected papers of the Australian
Association for Research in Education
annual conference (pp. 91-98). North Ryde, NSW: Australian Association for
Research in Education.
Brophy, J. (1988). Educating teachers
about managing classrooms and students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(1),
1-18.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy:
The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Enochs, L. G. & Riggs, I. M. (1990).
Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument:
A preservice elementary scale. School Science & Mathematics, 90,
694–706.
Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. (1984).
Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology,
76,569-582.
Ginns, W. &Watters, J.(1999).
Beginning elementary school teachers and the effective teaching of science. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 10(4), 287-313.
Glickman, C.D. & Tamashiro, R.T.
(1980). Clarifying teachers' beliefs about discipline. Educational
Leadership, 37, 459- 464.
Johns, A., MacNaughton, R.H., Karabinus,
N.G. (1989). School discipline guidebook: Theory into practice. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Good, T. (1981). Teacher expectations
and student perceptions: A decade of research. Educational Leadership, 38(5),
415-422.
Laut, J. (1999). Classroom
management: Beliefs of pre-service teacher and classroom teachers concerning
classroom management styles. Paper presented at the Fall Teachers Education
Conference, Charleston, SC.
Martin, N. K., & Baldwin, B. (1993).
Validation of an inventory of classroom management style: Diffierences between
novice and experienced teachers. Paper presentedat the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA.
Martin, N. K., & Yin, Z. (1997).
Attitudes and beliefs regarding classroom management style: Differences between
male & female teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
Soutwest Educational ResearchAssociation, 20th, Austin, TX, January (Eric
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Martin, N. K., Yin, Z., & Baldwin,
B. (1998). Construct validation of the attitudes and beliefs classroom control inventory.
Journal of Classroom Interaction, 33 (2), 6- 15.
Martin, N. K. & Shoho, A. R. (1999,
April). Beliefs regarding classroom management style: differences between
traditional andalternative certification teachers. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (Eric Document
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Pajares (2002). Overview of
social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived October 6, 2006, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html
Riggs, I. M., and Enochs L. G. (1990).
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Rosas, C. & West,M. (2008). Teachers Beliefs
about Classroom management: Pre-service and Inservice Teachers’ Beliefs about
Classroom Management. IJAES, 5(1),pp.55-61
Savran, A., & Cakiroglu, J. (2003).
Difference between elementary and secondary pre-service science teachers' perceived
efficacy beliefs and their classroom management beliefs. The Turkish Online
Journal of Educational Technology, 2(4).
Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W. &
Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational
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Wolfgang, C. (1995). Solving
discipline problems: Strategies for classrooam teachers. oston: Alyn &
Bacon.
Yilmaz, H and Cavas, P.H. (2006). The Effect of the
Teaching Practice on Pre-service Elementary Teachers’ Science Teaching Efficacy
and Classroom Management Beliefs. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science &
Technology Education, 4(1), pp. 45-54
Ashton, P. T., Olejnik, S, Crocker, L.
& McAuliffe, M. (1982, April). Measurement problems in the study of
teachers' sense of efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New York.
Youseff, G. (2003). An
Investigation into the influences of teachers’ classroom management beliefs and
practices on classroom procedures. Paper presented at Association for
Research
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